Is the Rise of Aquaculture a Positive Development for Marine Conservation and Management?

Aquaculture has been deemed as a rather controversial topic. While some view it as “bridging the gap between supply and demand” (Pauly et al., 2002), others see it as an inefficient food system reaping toxic fishes that is polluting our oceans (Harris et al., 2016). On a large scale, aquaculture could lessen the need for finding and catching wild fish for food or ornamental purposes and also help us more efficiently harvest underwater plants for uses in pharmaceuticals, nutritional supplements and other products (Harris et al., 2016). The recent 2020 FAO report on aquaculture and fisheries points to the fact that the total fish production is expected to expand to 204 million metric tons by 2030. It also states that about 1/3 of the world’s fisheries that are caught in the wild are depleted because of overfishing, pollution, and climate change (FAO, 2020). Additionally, a report by Conservation International stated that about 3 million people rely on sea food and most of it, about 50% and even more is produced through aquaculture and about 4% of the world’s population rely solely on fisheries for their livelihoods and source of income. There is a need to understand and better evaluate the different opinions and discourses on this issue and better understand the synergies between conservation efforts and aquaculture planning.

Aquaculture is essentially the cultivation of aquatic organisms paving the way for different species of “fishes, shellfishes, even plants to be grown in tanks, ponds, and man-made inland systems or open water cages in the ocean until they reach market size” (Harris et al., 2016). It is largely responsible for recent increases in world fish production (Harris et al., 2016). However, from an environmental point of view aquaculture may pose as many problems as it solves. Conventionally several species of fish raised in ecologically healthy blend with crops and animals, but modern systems rely on monoculture of economically profitable species such as salmon and shrimp (Harris et al., 2016). These fish farms have significant negative impacts: excess food and fish waste contaminate the aquatic environment and the captive fishes have the capacity to spread diseases to wild stocks (Harris et al., 2016). This can subsequently lead to degradation of the wild gene pool (Harris et al., 2016). In coastal areas, shrimp farms have often replaced mangrove forests and have been ecologically destructive (Pauly et al., 2002); (Harris et al., 2016). In order to continue or perhaps desist the growth of the different types of aquaculture, there is a need to find better solutions and research investment in the concerning environmental impacts.

Since its inception in the 1970s, there has been a profound level of public mistrust pertaining to the aquacultures in the province of British Columbia in Canada (Findlay, 2019). With its unmatched coastal geography, abundance of cold water, favourable climate, and rich fishery tradition, the province became the perfect place for four types of aquaculture in Canada namely: Atlantic and Pacific salmons (marine finfish), shellfishes. freshwater finfish (rainbow trout) (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2012). The open net pen fish farms in the region have also been the subject of a lot of scrutiny in the recent decades, embed with issues pertaining to diseased fishes, sea lice, and toxic algal booms (Findla, 2019). In 2016, Pacific and Atlantic salmons were identified with a deadly disease called the Heart and skeletal muscle inflammation caused by a virus called the Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) (Findlay, 2019). This was identified in huge numbers at several of British Columbia’s Salmon farms and to make matters worse, it was later identified that the virus infected blood was being dumped into Canada’s largest wild salmon migration route (Finney, 2019). Additionally, the infected salmon were later sold in supermarkets. Even quite recently, there was a huge collapse of the Fraser River sockeye salmon in 2019 and it was attributed to the infected blood (Finney, 2019).

Issues like these have caused an alarming drop in public trust and several salmon farms in British Columbia are on the verge of collapse. Other issues like sea lice infestation, issue of pollution due to the release of excess nutrients, fecal matter, affecting the coastal ecosystems, changing the landscape for marine life also need to be highlighted in this case (Harris et al., 2016). In most cases farmed fishes are fed pellets made from other fish like anchovies or sardines which questions the ethical misconduct of catching wild fish and feeding those to farmed fish (Harris et al., 2016). In some places, there is the practice of trawling the bottom of the ocean for marine life in order to make fishmeal, thus harming the sensitive ecosystem (Harris et al., 2016). The increased number of pollutants in fishmeal, caused by toxins from ocean pollution, is also raising concerns because these harmful toxins make their way into food targeted for human consumption (Harris et al., 2016).

The issues highlighted in this case study raises question on the role of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans of Canada in the regulation and evaluation of these industries. Not surprisingly, the statutory body has remained in a state of dilemma on this issue because on one hand they are mandated to be protecting wild fisheries, but they are also mandated to promote aquaculture (Finney, 2019). It is a conflict of interest that causes issues when regulating this industry (Finney, 2019). This echoes a need for changes in the organization’s mandate and even in the overall directive for Canada’s Fisheries Act. It further begs the question on the future of fish farms in British Columbia. A recent debate of whether land-based aquacultures are better than ones in the open waters has been all the rage. While they have been hailed as the solution to the problems of open ocean fish farms, land-based aquacultures are known to be expensive, energy intensive and technically challenging (Lekang et al., 2016). A big upside to this alternative however is the fact that they generate minimal environmental impact and tend to be carbon negative with little waste management requirements (Lekang et al., 2016).

Contrary to the unfortunate circumstances and issues of aquacultures in British Columbia, the island of Zanzibar paves the way for marine conservation amalgamating sustainable development of the coastal community (IUCN, 2019). Located on the east coast of Africa, people on a small island of Zanzibar depend on the ocean for their livelihood (IUCN, 2019). The conservation of the coastal ecosystems of Zanzibar are uniquely important because without these ecosystems the economy may potentially collapse. The bulk of their economy depends predominantly on tourism and fisheries and over the years, aquaculture has become an essential and sustainable source of income and food for local communities with seaweed being the most commonly farmed products (IUCN, 2020). It employs about 25,000 farmers and 80% of these farmers are women (IUCN, 2019). The main threat for seaweed farming is of course climate change because of rising sea temperatures and they are currently looking for better technology in order to be able to grow the seaweed in deeper waters (IUCN, 2019). Since women in the community do not know how to swim, its usually the men that come in at this stage to dive in the ocean and plant the seeds. While some of the seaweed is retained and used by the community to make handmade products (which is further sold to tourists), most of it is exported to other parts of the world (IUCN, 2020). They are also developing sponge farming, farming for sea cucumbers, fishes as well as crabs (IUCN, 2020). Aquaculture activities in this case are essentially generating jobs for both men and women thereby promoting gender equality in the community. Moreover, capacity building for local farmers has been hailed by the community and the people see it as a means to giving back to the nature and society. There was a push back from the tourism industry for the longest time but now the tourists enjoy the sights of seaweed farming and are curious to find out more through the means of tours that are organized by the women in the community (IUCN, 2019). There is also this growing need now for marine spatial planning given the mutual co-existence between tourism and coastal communities (IUCN, 2019). The island has established marine conservation areas and 80% of the aquaculture sites are within these declared regions, essentially facilitating marine conservation in the long run (IUCN, 2020). The emergence of aquaculture in Zanzibar has had a significant economic and social impact for local communities especially women and has opened discussions on how to farm in the ocean while also ensuring its conservation (IUCN, 2020).

Through the means of these contradictory case studies, discussion around the arguments supporting or opposing the development of aquacultures can be laid out. In this debate of for or against, it is also important to consider different case studies around the world. The platform of marine conservation may or may not be supported depending on the context of a certain place. Social, economic, and political viewpoints need to be considered on a case-by-case basis. Should governments completely get rid of them because of the bad representation by the media discourse or rather limit the use of it? As mentioned before, on one side these systems can help rebuild species populations, and also have the potential to feed communities predominantly relying on seafood. On the other hand, there is uncertainty around the various issues that come with it. Careful consideration needs to be given to different areas of focus in order to either find different alternatives to the systems or to better equip the forthcoming research.

One alternative to monocultures of fish farms is the use of an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (Le Gouvello et al., 2017). It uses the principle that in a food chain, what may be considered as waste for one species becomes feed for another (Le Gouvello et al., 2017). Following this approach, shellfish and marine plants for instance could benefit from the organic and inorganic waste generated by marine farms thereby reducing their impact on the environment and at the same time diversifying income for the farmers (Le Gouvello et al., 2017). Another tactic could be the use of ecosystems approach. It is based on the idea of depending on the best available scientific, traditional and local knowledge in the area (Le Gouvello et al., 2017). It gives an equal voice to all stakeholders including the aquaculture community. It aims to optimize the use of an ecosystem without damage, through the management of human impacts and activities. Locally managed marine areas such as the ones mentioned in the case of Zanzibar, wholly managed by coastal communities with the support of government and partner representatives can also pave the way (Le Gouvello et al., 2017). There is no doubt that more research needs to take place for ocean aquacultures and their impacts on ecosystems. And also looking at regulatory policies that also consider the different forms of production (looking at lower carbon footprint).

In terms of conservation management, there is a need to develop clearer objectives and strategies that take into consideration views of different stakeholders. Consequently, there is a need to better define the role and level of different types of aquaculture for conservation outcomes. Some people might term it as “conservation aquaculture” however it may be misleading and limit the effectiveness of better practices and also minimize the alignment of both aquaculture and conservation. Collaboration, strategic planning, monitoring practices and concerted efforts between and within different stakeholders can allow conservation goal setting aiming to maximize the economic, social, and ecological benefits that can be reaped.

References:

Conservation International. 2017. Transforming Wild Fisheries and Fish Farming. Retrieved from https://www.conservation.org/priorities/transforming-wild-fisheries-and-fish-farming

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2012. Aquaculture in British Columbia. Retrieved from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/aquaculture/pacific-pacifique/index-eng.html

FAO, 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in Action. Rome. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en

Findlay, A., 2019. Why Does British Columbia Still Allow Atlantic Salmon Farming. Retrieved from https://mountainculturegroup.com/fish-farming-british-columbia/

Finney, B., 2019. Death by a Thousand Cuts. Retrieved from https://www.oceanographicmagazine.com/features/wild-salmon-british-columbia/

Harris, J.M. & Roach, B., 2016. Environmental and natural resource economics : a contemporary approach 3rd ed. (Pg. 328–331)

IUCN (2019). New IUCN Film- Common Challenge of Aquaculture and Marine Conservation in Zanzibar. Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/news/marine-and-polar/201912/new-iucn-film-common-challenge-aquaculture-and-marine-conservation-zanzibar

IUCN (2020). IUCN Case Study Examines the Interaction Between Aquaculture and Marine Conservation in Zanzibar. Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/news/marine-and-polar/202005/iucn-case-study-examines-interaction-between-aquaculture-and-marine-conservation-zanzibar

Le Gouvello, R. et al., 2017. Aquaculture and marine protected areas: Potential opportunities and synergies. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 27(S1), pp.138–150. Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/aquaculture_and_marine_protected_areas.pdf

Lekang, O.I., Salas-Bringas, C. & Bostock, J.C. (2016). Challenges and emerging technical solutions in on-growing salmon farming. Aquacult Int 24, 757–766 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-016-9994-z

Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Guénette, S. et al., 2002. Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature 418, 689–695. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01017